The Jungle is about the meat packing industry in Chicago, and specifically highlights the story of one immigrant family’s struggles and pains of living in Packingtown. The novel also gives the reader a clear picture of the horrors that happened to the working men and women as well as the animals who suffered at the hands of the workers. The passage below is representative of the hierarchy of scientific knowledge because it clearly explains all of the facts and patterns that Jurgis has experienced and observed living in Packingtown, and now has reached the theory that everything is against him and his family. I think that the evidence that he has collected justifies his theory and gives you a thorough description of what was life for the citizens of Packingtown. “And there house was gone…flung out into the cold to starve and freeze! Jurgis could see the truth now –could see himself, through the whole long course of events, the victim of ravenous vultures that had torn into his vitals and devoured him; of fiends that had racked and tortured him, mocking him, meantime, jeering in his face… He and his family, helpless women and children, struggling to live, ignorant and defenseless and forlorn as they were – and the enemies that had been lurking for them, crouching upon their trail and thirsting for their blood! That first lying circular, that smooth-tongued slippery agent! That trap of the extra payments, the interests, and all the other charges that they had not the means to pay, and would never have attempted to pay! And then all the tricks of the packers, their masters, the tyrants who ruled them, - the shut- downs and the scarcity of work, the irregular hours and the cruel speeding-up, the lowering of wages, the raising of prices! The mercilessness of nature about them, of heat and cold, rain and snow; the mercilessness of the city, of the country in which they lived, of its laws and customs that they did not understand! All of these things had worked together for the company that had marked them for its prey and was waiting for its chance. And now, with thus last hideous injustice, its time had come, and it had turned on them out bag and baggage, and taken, and taken their house and sold it again! And they could do nothing, they were tied hand and foot – the law was against them, the whole machinery of society was at their oppressors’ command! If Jurgis so much as raised a hand against them, back he would go into that wild-beast pen from which he had just escaped!” (pages 202 – 203) A second passage that sums everything up in the end of the novel is below. At this point in the novel, Jurgis has really been through it all and now sees what Packingtown is all about. This passage describes the Socialists’ perception of Capitalism, which Jurgis now freely and ambitiously adopts. As the passage states, Jurgis thought how lucky he was not to be a hog when he first observed the killing beds in Packingtown, but his new friend and Socialist party member shines a different light on Jurgis’ original perception. “Jurgis recollected how, when he had first come to Packingtown, he had stood and watched the hog-killing, and thought how cruel and savage it was, and come away congratulating himself that he was not a hog; now his new acquaintance showed him that a hog was just what he had been – one of the packers’ hogs. What they wanted from a hog was all of the profits that could be got out of him; and that was what they wanted from the working – man, and also that was what they wanted from the public. What the hog thought of it, and what he suffered were not considered; and no more was it with labor, and no more with the purchaser of meat… When Jurgis had made himself familiar with the Socialist literature, as he would very quickly, he would get glimpses of the Beef Trust from all sorts of aspects, and he would find it everywhere the same; it was the incarnation of blind and insensate Greed. It was a monster devouring with a thousand mouths, trampling with a thousand hoofs; it was the Great Butcher – it was the spirit of Capitalism made flesh…” (pages 360-0361) In conclusion, even though the novel was a story and the characters did not keep scientific journals to analyze their situation, I was able to apply all six of the nature of science elements throughout the book. There are just two of the elements discussed in this summary, however, one could notice just how complete and accurate the observations the characters discussed are. They are first hand experiences and images that serve as their scientific research and findings.
Unnatural Death provides detailed accounts of the responsibilities of a medical examiner. All aspects of the field are covered including autopsy, body identification, determination of time of death, and coverage of famous cases. In this book, various facets of the nature of science are covered.
Overall, this text had various examples of the elements of the nature of science. I was able to relate my knowledge of the nature of science to the forensic pathology field, which I found helpful. However, as a whole the book did not hit all of the elements extensively. I would not completely rule this book out as a helpful tool, but I would definitely use it selectively in the classroom. This book was split into chapters that highlighted specific methods used in the medical examining field and in that sense, it would be useful in the classroom because each chapter tells a different story and the book is not continuous. In the science classroom, a teacher can easily choose one chapter and use it as a supplement to other course materials.
The book does do a good job in emphasizing the nature of science in chapters six and seven, which cover methods used to identify human remains and determining time of death to use in the classroom. Both of these chapters highlight the importance of the use of a hierarchy of scientific knowledge in the field. Determining time of death and identifying human remains both follow outlined step-wise procedures. When one method does not work, the next method is already lined up until a certain point. This point is emphasized below:
“There are only so many ways to identify a body. The great majority are identified visually, by family members. Failing that, the best, most effective way is also the simplest: by comparing X rays of bones or dental records to the body. In a tragedy such as the Challenger explosion, the Air Force had provided another way to identify some of the astronauts. The Air Force keeps a record of footprints and it had those of the four astronauts who were in the service.” Page 77
Here Dr. Baden outlines the step-wise progression of identifying human remains. This type of hierarchical methods is key for the medical examiner. If fingerprints do not work, then he moves on to teeth and bones. With each elimination of a method comes to logical progression and use of another method. Not only is the hierarchy of scientific knowledge seen in the identification of human remains, but Dr. Baden notes how important the development of patterns and theories is to solving crimes.
“Several of the Tinning children had turned blue-in the car, in her arms, in the crib; she brought them to the hospital cyanotic. If a baby is unconscious but alive, SIDS is ruled out. Turning blue is a sign of suffocation-the lungs stop and no oxygen reaches the cells. Nothing happened while the children were in the hospital. The single constant factor in all of these deaths was the presence of Mary Beth Tinning.” Page 118
This book was an easy and fun read. It had great commentary on famous cases and methods used in the ME field. For someone interested in forensics, I would recommend it, but as a tool in the classroom I would use it selectively. The book did contain elements of the nature of science, but they were not extensive or readily seen so I would not use this book as a whole in the classroom.
Reason for Hope by Jane Goodall, chronicles the journey from “the time when I drew my first breath and screwed up my face to cry my first cry” (Goodall, 1999, pg. 2) through her first experiences in Africa to how she feels after 9/11. She does an amazing job of weaving in her life, her research, and her personal opinion about her research and the world. I was very quickly able to see the elements of the Nature of Science in the book in more creative ways than I could have imagined. At a very early age Jane was fascinated by animals and by understanding the natural world around her. When she was 4 years old she was fascinated by chickens and how they were able to lay an egg. “Where on a chicken was there an opening big enough for an egg to come out? Apparently no one explained this properly, so I must have decided to find out for myself. So I crawled into another henhouse and waited, hoping a hen would come in to lay” (Pg. 6). She came up with a creative way to satisfy her curiosity and thirst for knowledge. As she grew up, her creativity and thirst for knowledge was in no way diminished. She dreamed of going to Africa and after being invited by one of her friends she saved up enough money to finally be able to go. This is where she met Louis Leaky and her life was changed forever. “Louis (Leaky) still talked about the chimpanzees from time to time. If only I could do something like that, something that involved observing and learning, and not killing. One day I blurted out: “Louis, I wish you wouldn’t keep talking about it because that’s just what I want to do” (Pg. 53). Leaky appreciated her enthusiasm because she was not looking at this project as a trained scientist would, from an objective lens, but instead looked to the chimps as creatures capable of many amazing things. Jane loved the chimps, named them, saw their personalities emerge, and was accepted as a safe member of the community. She continued to study the chimps for many years, adding on research assistants, publishing a book, countless research papers, and helping to create The Jane Goodall Institute which helps to fund research and conservation projects. She shares her love of research and the chimps with the countless researchers that visit the field station in Gombe every year as well as on lecture tours. Jane’s experience was not perfect however. She dealt with members of her research team being kidnapped, fighting and killing among the chimps, the death of her second husband, and outcry at her initial discoveries. “My observations at Gombe challenged human uniqueness, and whenever that happens there is always a violet scientific and theological uproar. On this occasion there were some who tried to discredit my observations because I was untrained, and therefore could not possibly produce reliable information. But the photographs that I eventually obtained proved the truth” (Pg. 67). The fact that she was inexperienced was the reason that Leaky wanted her to do the research, and was now causing trouble. She eventually won the support and respect of scientists around the world, and her study and research station continue to be one of the most amazing scientific studies that the world has ever seen.
The simple mention of the word parasite is often enough to make the average person’s skin crawl. Parasites have traditionally evoked a sense of horror and disgust in people; they have occupied the darkest corners of nightmares, lore, and science. However, parasites are among the most successful and sophisticated organisms in the world. In his book “Parasite Rex: Inside the World of Nature’s Most Dangerous Creatures”, Carl Zimmer exposes the complex, exotic and often misunderstood world of these captivating organisms.
One of the most prominent elements of the Nature of Science (NOS) in Zimmer’s book is the creativity that parasitologists employ in looking for solutions. Parasites have forced scientists to reconsider their views of the natural world; traditional scientific notions based on free-living organisms often do not apply to parasites. As a result, parasitologists investigating the biology of these organisms are forced to rely on innovation in their search for answers. Janice Moore, a parasitologist at Colorado State University, found that parasitized pill bugs were more likely to engage in behaviors that made them easier prey for starlings (the next host for thorny-headed worms, a parasite of the pill bug). In order to prove that starlings were more likely to prey upon parasitized pill bugs, Moore devised a simple, yet ingenuous field experiment: “In another experiment, she set up nest boxes for starlings, which came and raised nestlings in them… Moore loosely tied pipe cleaners around the necks of the nestlings, closing off their throats just enough so they couldn’t swallow their meals. By picking through their mouths and the nest, Moore could collect the pill bugs the adult birds brought… at a typical site, fewer than 1 percent of the pill bugs carried thorny-headed worms, but 30 percent of the ones Moore collected from the nestlings were infected (p. 96).”
Another element of NOS in Zimmer’s book is the role that subjectivity of perceptions has played in the historical scientific study of parasites. Zimmer argues that parasites have long carried the stigma of minor degenerates. Scientists regarded them as nothing more than entertaining party tricks with hardly any truly significant role in ecosystems and life in general. Historically, one of the greatest perpetuators of this perspective was the British zoologist Ray Lankester. Lankester was disgusted by parasites; he believed that parasites represented free-living organisms that had degenerated and simplified for an easier lifestyle. This view resonated throughout science well into the twentieth century. Zimmer reflects that this skewed perception has greatly hindered the understanding of parasites. “From Lankester to Lorenz, scientists have gotten it wrong… If there hadn’t been such high walls dividing scientists who study life… parasites might have been recognized sooner as not disgusting, or at least not merely disgusting. If parasites are so feeble, so lazy, how was it they could manage to live inside every free-living species and infect billions of people? (p. 22)”
In the constant battle of life, parasites have emerged as one of the most successful and sophisticated group of organisms. In “Parasite Rex”, Carl Zimmer elegantly illustrates the new understandings that science is only now beginning to develop about these amazing organisms that have long been shunned by traditional scientific notions. Zimmer’s exploration of parasitology is an effective portrayal of NOS as it exists in the scientific world.
Mapping Fate: A Memoir of Family, Risk, and Genetic Research, by Alice Wexler, is a book about the love of a family, the pain of death, and the hope for a cure. Wexler’s family has a history of Huntington’s disease. Her grandfather died from the disease, along with her three uncles, all of who showed signs of the disease long before there was any medical treatment.
Later in the chapter, Wexler describes the major efforts to found a major organization for Huntington’s disease research undertaken by both her father and her sister. She shares her personal experience being at risk for the disease, as well as the struggles her family faced with her mother. The characters are not simply just names, but are described as people who the reader can relate and emphasize with. The book was a fascinating read to not only learn about Huntington’s disease, but also to learn about all of the family conflicts and issues that are associated with having a life-threatening disease.
In addition to exploring Huntington’s disease, the book delves into the topics of family secrecy and withholding information. Alice and her sister were not told of their mother’s illness until much later in their lives, after the effects of the disease were clearly evident. The genetics of autosomal dominant diseases are described in laymen’s terms, as is the genetic test that can now be done to determine if an individual has the gene for Huntington’s.
While there is still not a cure for Huntington’s disease, much effort has been made in the areas of research and identification. Thanks to the efforts of the Wexler family, it is now possible for an individual to be tested for the gene that causes Huntington’s disease. This information has become vital to those living with the trait and can alter decisions on bearing children. Alice Wexler brings an emotional story to life with vivid details and simple explanations, leaving the reader with newfound knowledge about Huntington’s disease.
An idea brought forth from the conventions was the newly discovered neurotransmitter GABA. It was thought that GABA might have something to do with Huntington’s disease:
“Thomas L. Perry announced that he had found significantly lower levels of GABA in the autopsied brains of people who had died of Huntington’s. Certainly it made sense that individuals who had suffered from excess movement might lack a major inhibitory neurotransmitter. Over he next few years, many investigators tested the functions of GABA and the neurons that GABA used” (126).
The recent discovery of neurotransmitters was abuzz in the biological world at about the same time as research on Huntington’s was beginning. GABA (gamma amino butyric acid, is a neurotransmitter that was thought to prohibit impulses from traveling from one neuron to the next. The idea proposed by Perry was that lower levels of GABA would allow more impulses to travel between nerve cells, thus contributing to the choreic movements seen by Huntington’s disease patients. This hypothesis, however, did not turn out to be correct. Research was limited due to the fact that researchers could only use brain tissue of a patient already deceased. Administering the GABA to the target site also turned out to be difficult due to a chemical reaction among the GABA enzyme. This example shows how a tentative explanation for a given phenomena can (and will) change when more information is known about the topic.
In addition to the depression effects Huntington’s disease can trigger, women with the disease can start to feel as though they are loosing their sense of femininity.
“Nancy and I spoke often on the phone, running up huge bills as we tried to sort out the symbolic meanings of this disease. For both of us, the diagnosis of HD struck at the heart of being a woman. In the sexual economy of our family, the fats of genetics were inescapably entangled with those of gender. Dad was strong, healthy, independent, while Mom was weak, dependent, and sick. When I decided not to have children of my own I felt much more masculine and barren and also damaged and less attractive as a woman” (72).
In an extremely difficult position, Wexler, like many other women with Huntington’s, was faced with the predicament of whether or not have children. Determining what to do in this situation was extremely difficult for Wexler. On one hand, she wanted the love and enjoy of having children, but did want them to go through the misery Huntington’s. Her decision to not have children has affected how she thinks of herself as a woman. She sought out therapy to determine what dreams of lesbianism meant, and struggled with her identity as a woman. She saw herself, being female, identifying with her mother as the one whose fate is sealed, while her father, the man, was free of any symptoms. This social dilemma, faced by all of the women diagnosed with the disease, is an important implication of Huntington’s disease that could very well be overlooked.
Symbiotic Planet: A New Look of Evolution by Lynn Margulis is a book for anyone who is interested in changing the way in which they view evolution on the minuscule and the grand scale of living on planet Earth. Whether you are a staunch believer, one who is a devout believer in their faith, or one who is caught in a sort of limbo, this book is an eye opener to say the least. Symbiosis and the implications that these intricate relationships have on the planet as a whole is not a new concept. However, as the book delves deeper into what symbiosis entails, new light bulbs start to go on.
After a brief introduction to her life as a student, wife (of Carl Sagan mind you) and mother, Margulis begins to lay out her ideas on symbiosis, symbiogenesis, and serial endosymbiosis theory (SET). She starts with a chapter on the development of the first prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells by means of symbiotic relationships of bacteria, one bacterium engulfs another to become a mitochondria or chloroplast, etc. This may be a familiar idea to some, and new to others, but the in depth investigations that Margulis has performed are astounding. From here she goes into discussions on the all too famous “primordial ooze” and how that first spark may or may not have occurred. She also goes into the idea of the first sex between individuals exchanging genetic information being a symbiotic relationship. Creepy? Maybe, but it is and always has been about survival. Following is a discussion of using all previously mentioned ideas to work out an ever-changing taxonomic problem in which no one is quite sure where everything belongs. The last chapter of the book involves the Gaia Theory. Gaia Theory is the idea that through the many, many symbiotic relationships of the living environment, the Earth itself is and always will be a sort of living organism. Margulis openly admits that “The Living Planet Earth” is a dangerous oversimplification of the many delicate and intricate relationships on our planet. But, is it possible that numerous interwoven symbiotic relationships built into, around and about each other lead to this wonderful blue gem we live on???
I would elaborate further, but I don’t want to ruin it for anyone who may read this in the future. As I said before, this book is for anyone who still has questions about how it is even possible that we arrived at this point in time. This book sheds light on what an enormous improbability it is that we have arrived to this point. Amazing and thought provoking to say the least.
Stiff: The Curious Life of Human Cadavers is the first book written by Mary Roach, columnist turned author, that began as an offshoot of one of her columns. The book is basically a compilation of her explorations into the bizarre “lives” of human cadavers. Her research takes her everywhere from plastic surgery practice, to crash dummy testing, head transplants, body-snatching, forensics research and crucifixion experiments. Although the book is often cringe-worthy, Roach uses witticism and humor to create an entertaining, respectful and informative book. The chapters of the book that most related to the elements of the Nature of Science were those that dealt primarily with scientific research (rather than historical facts or practices). These include car crash testing, injury analysis, crucifixion experiments, and ballistics research. One in particular highlighted multiple NOS elements more than the others: injury analysis. Roach devoted a chapter to an interview with Dennis Shanahan, an injury analyst who consults for car companies and large wreckages, such as airplane crashes. Shanahan walks Roach through his analysis of the TWA Flight 800 crash as he illustrates the evidence he used to develop his theory of how the plane went down. “In the case of TWA Flight 800, Shanahan was on the trail of a bomb. He was analyzing the victims’ injuries for evidence of an explosion in the cabin” (115). Shanahan used the injuries of the victims as his empirical evidence to justify his theories. Initially, authorities had a theory that the plane went down from a missile blast. The NOS states that theories are often tentative, or subject to change. The following quote illustrates this tentative nature. Shanahan turned next to the chemical burns found on some of the bodies. These burns had begun to fuel speculation that a missile had torn through the cabin. […] Had a missile blasted through the cabin, the fuel burns would have been on people’s fronts or sides, depending on where they had been seated, but not their backs, as the seatbacks would have protected them. No evidence of a missile (117). Shanahan used his empirical evidence to rule out the original theory. As his investigation went on, Shanahan illustrated the hierarchy of scientific knowledge, or the idea that scientific facts lead to patterns, which lead to theories. He used the evidence of “foreign bodies” to determine whether a bomb exploded on the plane. Another way the dead can help determine whether a bomb went off is through the numbers and trajectories of the ‘foreign bodies’ embedded within them. These show up on X-rays, which are routinely taken as part of each crash autopsy. Bombs launch shards of themselves and of nearby objects into people seated close by; the patterns within each body and among the bodes overall can shed light on whether a bomb went off and where (117). Shanahan used the facts (the foreign bodies found in each individual), to look for a pattern (whether the foreign bodies were found in the same location of the bodies), to finally determine a theory (whether, in fact, a bomb had exploded). Overall, the elements of the NOS were easily found throughout Roach’s explorations, however, they were more prevalent in the chapters that focused specifically on scientific research.
As the title of the book goes “The Selfish Gene” the author portrays the gene, which is the hereditary material influencing individual characteristics as a selfish entity. He kind of gives very confusing definition of the gene throughout the book. Dawkins says that “Let us try to teach generosity and altruism, because we are born Selfish. Let us understand what our selfish genes are up to, because we may then at least have the chance to upset their designs, something that no other species has ever aspired to.” Dawkins says that our body is simply the vehicle for the genes, which travels from generation to generation. He displays a very creative way of explaining the various scientific processes by giving metaphors. He possesses an artistic and creative way of writing. Though there are various critical reviews and arguments about Dawkins theories the book is really interesting and captures the reader’s imagination Dawkins talks in details about natural selection and strongly asserts that the selfish gene is the reason of natural selection. He says, the selfish gene will always try to exhibit itself and will make all effort to remove its allele from the population. Then he moves on to say that it is due to this selfish gene that animal demonstrating certain behavioral patterns. For example, “women in the natural state become gradually less efficient in bringing up children, as they get older. Therefore the life expectancy of a child with older mother was less than that of a child of a young mother. This means that if a woman had a child and a grandchild born on the same day, the grandchild could expect to live longer than the child. When women reached the age where the average chance of each child reaching adulthood was just less than half the chance of each individual of the same age reaching adulthood, any gene for investing in grand children in preference to children would tend to prosper. A women cannot invest fully in her grand children if she went on having children of her own. Therefore genes for becoming reproductively infertile in middle age become more numerous, since they are carried in the bodies of grandchildren whose survival was assisted by grandmotherly altruism.” This sounds really funny. But Dawkins in this book portrays that genes rule over organism. The organism is a mere tool or robot. Then he talks in the preceding chapters about population explosion, contraception/family planning, courtship, fidelity, aggression, and social behavior. He explains all these behaviors in terms of the gene, which I find raises questions and a curiosity in looking for answers among readers. I find ethnology to be a very vast subject where research is still progressing. But this book definitely brings in innovation, creativity and knowledge in science. In the last chapter, Dawkins takes about his theory of Memetics. According to this theory like genes, memes (imitators) are transmitted from generation to generations in humans for example altruistic behavior. He ends by citing that like “one unique feature of man which may or may not have evolve memically is his capacity of conscious foresight. Selfish genes have no foresight. They are unconscious blind replicators.” So as humans we are at an advantage to decide between right or wrong, just and unjust and act accordingly. This book really represents science for all. As a review say “This book should be read, can be read, by almost everyone. It describes with great skill a new face of the theory of evolution.” By W.D. Hamilton, Science
“The Secret Life of Lobsters” written by Trevor Corson is a magnificent book that describes the connections and importance in the lives of lobsters, the lobsterman, and the ecologists studying these intriguing species. Boston magazine stated it perfectly by reviewing the book as one that “braids scientific history with a fisherman’s view of a lobstering town, keeping one foot in the lab, one on the deck, and the other eight in the mysterious deep.” This book paints a perfect picture of the possibilities that can arise from the relationships formed between lobsterman and scientists that are working together for the future of lobsters, the future of a livelihood, and the future of understanding the question, why?
The struggles that lobsterman and ecologists face throughout the book include the battles of the lobster fishery together with the fight to determine how big the lobster population is, how long it could last, and measures to take in order to continue its success. The number of egg bearing females, where lobsters spawn, where lobsters reside, the prime water temperature, the direction of the ocean currents, lobster life cycles etc. must all be considered. New hypothesizes are always arising and answers are continually being chased down by the scientists. “If you searched with persistence and observed with a keen eye, Mother Nature would eventually reveal her secrets (pg 96).”
The history of the past plays a colossal role in how the success of the fishery will be viewed in the future. One needs to understand their past in order to get to their future and of all people lobsterman and scientists alike wholly understand this concept. Being a lobsterman is an ancestral livelihood that is carried in a family through generation after generation. Science, although it may not be ancestral, is continually developed with each generation of new scientists, new hypotheses, and new research. Just as the lobsterman and scientists look out for one another and prepare each future generation for the change they wish to see in the world and the responsibilities they possess, lobsters do so too. Each species, the lobsters, the lobstermen, or the lobster scientists come together to form an inseparable bond of friendship, experience, and wisdom for each generation to come.
“I do think it’s some sort of gathering of the flock, Jack told Bob Steneck. Those big females are the wise old ladies of the lobster population. They’re not coming inshore to shed their shells or lay their eggs, so maybe they’re coming in to lead the young ones out to the wintering grounds. You know, teaching them how to migrate (pg 218).”
Each of the elements of the nature of science can be found not only within the book but these elements explode within each chapter and part of the book. Empiricism and the demand for knowledge, the hierarchy of scientific knowledge, and tentativeness in explanations are persistent themes in relation to the quest lobstermen and ecologists are continually exploring in order to find the answers plaguing the lobster fishery. The social dimension of work and the subjectivity of perceptions can be described explicitly in the historical and generational continuum of scientists and lobsterman. Finally, creativity in looking for solutions is necessary for everyone and in everything. Critical thinking is mandatory and necessary to survive and reproduce. When looking at the book as a whole, some of the elements remain as ever running currents continually describing the progress the lobsterman and ecologists are making. Questions are continually being asked, research is continually being conducted, and answers are continually being found. But there are always more questions. These questions build, facts are found, patterns displayed, and theories suggested. At times, whether a lobsterman, ecologist, or lobster, you may be fighting against the wind, but your fight may only make you stronger and lead you in a direction you never expected taking, a direction with answers, or a direction on the way to a future destination.
“As Bruce and Barb sat on the couch in their cozy living room, their children off to college, it seemed the man on the screen might be right [“Boys, it doesn’t get any better than this.”]. Fishermen could do worse than protecting their young until it was time to release them into the currents. The rest was up to the sea (pg 272).”
I read The Omnivores Dilemma by Michael Pollan, one of my favorite authors. This book is a little long, but Pollan shares his personal adventures with such fluency and intelligence that you won't be able to put it down. I am super passionate about food so if you are too...you'll love this book!
In The Omnivores Dilemma, author Michael Pollan narrates the path taken by animal, plant, or fungus to becoming a meal on the dinner table, or for many Americans, in the car. Pollan actively investigates and eloquently reveals the growth, cultivation, slaughtering, processing, manufacturing, hunting, and gathering of food by traveling around the country to experience it all. Through his observations and research, Pollan generates the conviction that food is not created equally. However, humans, as omnivores, have the capacity to eat almost anything; therefore, the decision of what to eat and why it should be chosen over other foods is complex. The options are not limited for human omnivores and this variety of choice is reflected on the shelves of grocery stores. There must be a change in the way American’s think about food in order to promote a healthier nation. According to Pollan, if people take greater consideration for the journey food takes before it reaches the supermarket, the occurrence of obesity and eating disorders will lessen and the overall health of the country will change for the better. Throughout the text, Pollan cites scientific evidence, experts, and food connoisseurs to develop a proposition for Americans to be more aware of what they consume.
Pollan indentifies the creativity of scientists who attempt to study the diets of past civilizations in comparison with the diet of modern human beings. With no opportunity to observe past civilizations consuming food, scientists looked to alternate strategies and began investigating the remains of mummified humans. Pollan writes, “The same scientists who glean the composition of ancient diets from mummified human remains can do the same for you or me, using a snip of hair or fingernail” (p. 20). The ability for scientists to identify the diet of modern humans by assessing the mineral content in hair and nails is a creative advancement in modern science. Pollan incorporates this creative solution when discussing the prevalence of corn in the diet of humans in many civilizations throughout history. Scientists’ ability to determine the diet of humans by examining their remains, hair, or nails, provided Pollan with evidence to support his claim that corn has been a staple for humans and animals for centuries.
The tentative nature of science is also prevalent throughout this book. Pollan uses many examples of scientific facts being altered to prove the food we eat is not always healthy, even if there are claims stating otherwise. Pollan addresses the tentativeness of nutritional values in America as he writes “So every few decades some new scientific research comes along to challenge the prevailing nutritional orthodoxy; some nutrient that Americans have been happily chomping for decades is suddenly found to be lethal; another nutrient is elevated to the status of health food; the industry throws its weight behind it; and the American way of dietary life undergoes yet another revolution” (p. 300). Pollan acknowledges that scientific research can change the diet of a society if a type of food is identified as harmful or beneficial to our health.
Overall, this book was packed with examples for each NOS element. There are passages throughout the book that can be incorporated into classroom instruction as supplemental text.
The Map That Changed the World by Simon Winchester
The book I read is about William Smith and the birth of modern geology. William Smith was an uneducated son of a blacksmith who developed the first geologic map. Mr. Smith was born in a time period where the church set the beliefs in science. What we know as fossils were believed to be shaped rocks placed in the rock formations by God and it was believed the Earth was created 4004 years older than the birth of Christ, just as the Bible stated.
William Smith was extremely observant and curious about his surroundings. He wondered about the pounding stones used on his uncle’s farm and the shapes that were on top of the rock. The rocks were actually coral fossils and the similarity to see organisms had been documented before William made his observations, but no one had an explanation for the presence of the fossils in higher elevations except for that God had put them there.
William’s big break occurred when he was working as a surveyor in the coalmines. He recognized the similarities between the strata in the coalmines and in the elevated hills of the English countryside. He made the connection that the strata were not always the same thickness but were always in the same order. While others had noted the strata the connection to age and the application to all areas had not been done together and published for all. “I observed a variation of the strata on the same line of level, and found that the Lias rock which about three miles back was a full 300 feet above this line was not 30 feet below it, and became the bed of a river and did not appear anymore at the surface.” (p.86-87) He was able to confirm his theory by managing the installation of channels to transport the coal from the mines. He was able to see fresh cuts into the ground and continually collect more data.
Mr. Smith endeavored on a personal journey mapping the strata of England, Wales and parts of Scotland. He unfortunately ended up the victim of plagiarism, serving time in debtors’ prison and basically homeless for ten years after prison. He didn’t receive praise for his work until years after he had completed his map. The book chronicles Mr. Smith’s struggles and triumphs through his life.
I really felt that NOS is seen throughout this book. It speaks of past observations and science that had been completed up to William Smith making his observations. The book also makes a point to describe the social climate during this time period, which led to some of the low points in his life. It really just describes the mindset and thought process of William Smith and the society that he was completing his work.
This book was a great read and I really enjoyed it. I really do not remember reading or learning about William Smith in college so it was interesting to me to read about his life and his place in history. His story definitely has some struggles, which humanized him a little. The book was an easy read for me and would definitely recommend it to other people.
Dr. Francis Collins, the head of the Human Genome Project, writes The Language of God from the perspective of a scientist who maintains a faith in God and scripture. According to Collins, people compartmentalize their life in terms of faith and science – the two may seem to be at odds with each other and generally one will dominate the other. Collins recognizes the distinct difference between science and spirituality, in that science is the study of the natural world, while faith attends to the supernatural realm. While others have argued that this difference puts the two in conflict with each other, Collins suggests that as the two address very different, yet related subjects, it is possible, even essential, that the two be brought into harmony with one another. This is not to say that one justifies the other, but rather, they can be combined to create a more thorough understanding of each other.
From a nature of science perspective, this introduction to his quest for truth illustrates a desire for further knowledge, and the recognition that he had formed an opinion without the research to either support or refute his position. In determining his stance on faith, Collins looks at multiple arguments laid out by theologians and scientists alike. The concept of Moral Law is tied in repeatedly, as are ‘science concepts’ such as the origins of the universe and evolution. In NOS, we talk about the subjectivity of perspectives, and it is clear that Collins is writing this from a very open bias, so we must take this into consideration when analyzing his ‘findings’. That said, it is interesting to see how his own explanations have evolved through his research and change in spiritual standings, exemplifying the tentativeness of explanations.
Due to the difference between spirituality and science, it may be a stretch to say that Collins’ quest for faith exemplifies NOS directly, but it definitely mirrors his experiences in science, and I think can be tied to demonstrate how the Nature of Science and inquiry can be brought into a more abstract subject. Throughout the book, there are a number of solid examples that directly correlate to the NOS categories (such as a clear breakdown of how science is ever changing and new ideas can be tested and developed into theory (pp 58) or the social aspect of collaboration in science, as demonstrated through the development of the Big Bang Theory (pp 63)). These, and others could be pulled out of the text to serve as self-standing explanations of NOS. Obviously, as Collins’ work is in the human genome, there are many references to biology, as well, namely an appendix dedicated specifically to “the Moral Practice of Science and Medicine: Bioethics” which addresses topics ranging from DNA testing (pp 241) to stem cell research (pp 245).
In schools today, there is separation of church and state, a fact, which may discourage teachers from bringing resources such as this into the classroom setting. At the very least, I would encourage teachers to explore the text for themselves, as there are specific NOS examples that do not have ‘spiritual content’ in the related passage. That said, Collins does propose the overarching question for the text: “In this modern era of cosmology, evolution, and the human genome, is there still the possibility of a richly satisfying harmony between the scientific and spiritual world views?” (pp 5), through which he encourages the reader to seek an answer for themselves rather than relying on an autopilot answer, as he had for many years, so ultimately it is up to you if you would like to bring the complete text as a resource for your classroom.
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The Jungle is about the meat packing industry in Chicago, and specifically highlights the story of one immigrant family’s struggles and pains of living in Packingtown. The novel also gives the reader a clear picture of the horrors that happened to the working men and women as well as the animals who suffered at the hands of the workers.
The passage below is representative of the hierarchy of scientific knowledge because it clearly explains all of the facts and patterns that Jurgis has experienced and observed living in Packingtown, and now has reached the theory that everything is against him and his family. I think that the evidence that he has collected justifies his theory and gives you a thorough description of what was life for the citizens of Packingtown.
“And there house was gone…flung out into the cold to starve and freeze!
Jurgis could see the truth now –could see himself, through the whole long course of events, the victim of ravenous vultures that had torn into his vitals and devoured him; of fiends that had racked and tortured him, mocking him, meantime, jeering in his face… He and his family, helpless women and children, struggling to live, ignorant and defenseless and forlorn as they were – and the enemies that had been lurking for them, crouching upon their trail and thirsting for their blood! That first lying circular, that smooth-tongued slippery agent! That trap of the extra payments, the interests, and all the other charges that they had not the means to pay, and would never have attempted to pay! And then all the tricks of the packers, their masters, the tyrants who ruled them, - the shut- downs and the scarcity of work, the irregular hours and the cruel speeding-up, the lowering of wages, the raising of prices! The mercilessness of nature about them, of heat and cold, rain and snow; the mercilessness of the city, of the country in which they lived, of its laws and customs that they did not understand! All of these things had worked together for the company that had marked them for its prey and was waiting for its chance. And now, with thus last hideous injustice, its time had come, and it had turned on them out bag and baggage, and taken, and taken their house and sold it again! And they could do nothing, they were tied hand and foot – the law was against them, the whole machinery of society was at their oppressors’ command! If Jurgis so much as raised a hand against them, back he would go into that wild-beast pen from which he had just escaped!” (pages 202 – 203)
A second passage that sums everything up in the end of the novel is below. At this point in the novel, Jurgis has really been through it all and now sees what Packingtown is all about. This passage describes the Socialists’ perception of Capitalism, which Jurgis now freely and ambitiously adopts. As the passage states, Jurgis thought how lucky he was not to be a hog when he first observed the killing beds in Packingtown, but his new friend and Socialist party member shines a different light on Jurgis’ original perception.
“Jurgis recollected how, when he had first come to Packingtown, he had stood and watched the hog-killing, and thought how cruel and savage it was, and come away congratulating himself that he was not a hog; now his new acquaintance showed him that a hog was just what he had been – one of the packers’ hogs. What they wanted from a hog was all of the profits that could be got out of him; and that was what they wanted from the working – man, and also that was what they wanted from the public. What the hog thought of it, and what he suffered were not considered; and no more was it with labor, and no more with the purchaser of meat… When Jurgis had made himself familiar with the Socialist literature, as he would very quickly, he would get glimpses of the Beef Trust from all sorts of aspects, and he would find it everywhere the same; it was the incarnation of blind and insensate Greed. It was a monster devouring with a thousand mouths, trampling with a thousand hoofs; it was the Great Butcher – it was the spirit of Capitalism made flesh…” (pages 360-0361)
In conclusion, even though the novel was a story and the characters did not keep scientific journals to analyze their situation, I was able to apply all six of the nature of science elements throughout the book. There are just two of the elements discussed in this summary, however, one could notice just how complete and accurate the observations the characters discussed are. They are first hand experiences and images that serve as their scientific research and findings.
Unnatural Death provides detailed accounts of the responsibilities of a medical examiner. All aspects of the field are covered including autopsy, body identification, determination of time of death, and coverage of famous cases. In this book, various facets of the nature of science are covered.
Overall, this text had various examples of the elements of the nature of science. I was able to relate my knowledge of the nature of science to the forensic pathology field, which I found helpful. However, as a whole the book did not hit all of the elements extensively. I would not completely rule this book out as a helpful tool, but I would definitely use it selectively in the classroom. This book was split into chapters that highlighted specific methods used in the medical examining field and in that sense, it would be useful in the classroom because each chapter tells a different story and the book is not continuous. In the science classroom, a teacher can easily choose one chapter and use it as a supplement to other course materials.
The book does do a good job in emphasizing the nature of science in chapters six and seven, which cover methods used to identify human remains and determining time of death to use in the classroom. Both of these chapters highlight the importance of the use of a hierarchy of scientific knowledge in the field. Determining time of death and identifying human remains both follow outlined step-wise procedures. When one method does not work, the next method is already lined up until a certain point. This point is emphasized below:
“There are only so many ways to identify a body. The great majority are identified visually, by family members. Failing that, the best, most effective way is also the simplest: by comparing X rays of bones or dental records to the body. In a tragedy such as the Challenger explosion, the Air Force had provided another way to identify some of the astronauts. The Air Force keeps a record of footprints and it had those of the four astronauts who were in the service.” Page 77
Here Dr. Baden outlines the step-wise progression of identifying human remains. This type of hierarchical methods is key for the medical examiner. If fingerprints do not work, then he moves on to teeth and bones. With each elimination of a method comes to logical progression and use of another method. Not only is the hierarchy of scientific knowledge seen in the identification of human remains, but Dr. Baden notes how important the development of patterns and theories is to solving crimes.
“Several of the Tinning children had turned blue-in the car, in her arms, in the crib; she brought them to the hospital cyanotic. If a baby is unconscious but alive, SIDS is ruled out. Turning blue is a sign of suffocation-the lungs stop and no oxygen reaches the cells. Nothing happened while the children were in the hospital. The single constant factor in all of these deaths was the presence of Mary Beth Tinning.” Page 118
This book was an easy and fun read. It had great commentary on famous cases and methods used in the ME field. For someone interested in forensics, I would recommend it, but as a tool in the classroom I would use it selectively. The book did contain elements of the nature of science, but they were not extensive or readily seen so I would not use this book as a whole in the classroom.
Reason for Hope by Jane Goodall, chronicles the journey from “the time when I drew my first breath and screwed up my face to cry my first cry” (Goodall, 1999, pg. 2) through her first experiences in Africa to how she feels after 9/11. She does an amazing job of weaving in her life, her research, and her personal opinion about her research and the world. I was very quickly able to see the elements of the Nature of Science in the book in more creative ways than I could have imagined.
At a very early age Jane was fascinated by animals and by understanding the natural world around her. When she was 4 years old she was fascinated by chickens and how they were able to lay an egg. “Where on a chicken was there an opening big enough for an egg to come out? Apparently no one explained this properly, so I must have decided to find out for myself. So I crawled into another henhouse and waited, hoping a hen would come in to lay” (Pg. 6). She came up with a creative way to satisfy her curiosity and thirst for knowledge.
As she grew up, her creativity and thirst for knowledge was in no way diminished. She dreamed of going to Africa and after being invited by one of her friends she saved up enough money to finally be able to go. This is where she met Louis Leaky and her life was changed forever. “Louis (Leaky) still talked about the chimpanzees from time to time. If only I could do something like that, something that involved observing and learning, and not killing. One day I blurted out: “Louis, I wish you wouldn’t keep talking about it because that’s just what I want to do” (Pg. 53). Leaky appreciated her enthusiasm because she was not looking at this project as a trained scientist would, from an objective lens, but instead looked to the chimps as creatures capable of many amazing things. Jane loved the chimps, named them, saw their personalities emerge, and was accepted as a safe member of the community. She continued to study the chimps for many years, adding on research assistants, publishing a book, countless research papers, and helping to create The Jane Goodall Institute which helps to fund research and conservation projects. She shares her love of research and the chimps with the countless researchers that visit the field station in Gombe every year as well as on lecture tours.
Jane’s experience was not perfect however. She dealt with members of her research team being kidnapped, fighting and killing among the chimps, the death of her second husband, and outcry at her initial discoveries. “My observations at Gombe challenged human uniqueness, and whenever that happens there is always a violet scientific and theological uproar. On this occasion there were some who tried to discredit my observations because I was untrained, and therefore could not possibly produce reliable information. But the photographs that I eventually obtained proved the truth” (Pg. 67). The fact that she was inexperienced was the reason that Leaky wanted her to do the research, and was now causing trouble. She eventually won the support and respect of scientists around the world, and her study and research station continue to be one of the most amazing scientific studies that the world has ever seen.
The simple mention of the word parasite is often enough to make the average person’s skin crawl. Parasites have traditionally evoked a sense of horror and disgust in people; they have occupied the darkest corners of nightmares, lore, and science. However, parasites are among the most successful and sophisticated organisms in the world. In his book “Parasite Rex: Inside the World of Nature’s Most Dangerous Creatures”, Carl Zimmer exposes the complex, exotic and often misunderstood world of these captivating organisms.
One of the most prominent elements of the Nature of Science (NOS) in Zimmer’s book is the creativity that parasitologists employ in looking for solutions. Parasites have forced scientists to reconsider their views of the natural world; traditional scientific notions based on free-living organisms often do not apply to parasites. As a result, parasitologists investigating the biology of these organisms are forced to rely on innovation in their search for answers. Janice Moore, a parasitologist at Colorado State University, found that parasitized pill bugs were more likely to engage in behaviors that made them easier prey for starlings (the next host for thorny-headed worms, a parasite of the pill bug). In order to prove that starlings were more likely to prey upon parasitized pill bugs, Moore devised a simple, yet ingenuous field experiment: “In another experiment, she set up nest boxes for starlings, which came and raised nestlings in them… Moore loosely tied pipe cleaners around the necks of the nestlings, closing off their throats just enough so they couldn’t swallow their meals. By picking through their mouths and the nest, Moore could collect the pill bugs the adult birds brought… at a typical site, fewer than 1 percent of the pill bugs carried thorny-headed worms, but 30 percent of the ones Moore collected from the nestlings were infected (p. 96).”
Another element of NOS in Zimmer’s book is the role that subjectivity of perceptions has played in the historical scientific study of parasites. Zimmer argues that parasites have long carried the stigma of minor degenerates. Scientists regarded them as nothing more than entertaining party tricks with hardly any truly significant role in ecosystems and life in general. Historically, one of the greatest perpetuators of this perspective was the British zoologist Ray Lankester. Lankester was disgusted by parasites; he believed that parasites represented free-living organisms that had degenerated and simplified for an easier lifestyle. This view resonated throughout science well into the twentieth century. Zimmer reflects that this skewed perception has greatly hindered the understanding of parasites. “From Lankester to Lorenz, scientists have gotten it wrong… If there hadn’t been such high walls dividing scientists who study life… parasites might have been recognized sooner as not disgusting, or at least not merely disgusting. If parasites are so feeble, so lazy, how was it they could manage to live inside every free-living species and infect billions of people? (p. 22)”
In the constant battle of life, parasites have emerged as one of the most successful and sophisticated group of organisms. In “Parasite Rex”, Carl Zimmer elegantly illustrates the new understandings that science is only now beginning to develop about these amazing organisms that have long been shunned by traditional scientific notions. Zimmer’s exploration of parasitology is an effective portrayal of NOS as it exists in the scientific world.
Mapping Fate: A Memoir of Family, Risk, and Genetic Research, by Alice Wexler, is a book about the love of a family, the pain of death, and the hope for a cure. Wexler’s family has a history of Huntington’s disease. Her grandfather died from the disease, along with her three uncles, all of who showed signs of the disease long before there was any medical treatment.
Later in the chapter, Wexler describes the major efforts to found a major organization for Huntington’s disease research undertaken by both her father and her sister. She shares her personal experience being at risk for the disease, as well as the struggles her family faced with her mother. The characters are not simply just names, but are described as people who the reader can relate and emphasize with. The book was a fascinating read to not only learn about Huntington’s disease, but also to learn about all of the family conflicts and issues that are associated with having a life-threatening disease.
In addition to exploring Huntington’s disease, the book delves into the topics of family secrecy and withholding information. Alice and her sister were not told of their mother’s illness until much later in their lives, after the effects of the disease were clearly evident. The genetics of autosomal dominant diseases are described in laymen’s terms, as is the genetic test that can now be done to determine if an individual has the gene for Huntington’s.
While there is still not a cure for Huntington’s disease, much effort has been made in the areas of research and identification. Thanks to the efforts of the Wexler family, it is now possible for an individual to be tested for the gene that causes Huntington’s disease. This information has become vital to those living with the trait and can alter decisions on bearing children. Alice Wexler brings an emotional story to life with vivid details and simple explanations, leaving the reader with newfound knowledge about Huntington’s disease.
An idea brought forth from the conventions was the newly discovered neurotransmitter GABA. It was thought that GABA might have something to do with Huntington’s disease:
“Thomas L. Perry announced that he had found significantly lower levels of GABA in the autopsied brains of people who had died of Huntington’s. Certainly it made sense that individuals who had suffered from excess movement might lack a major inhibitory neurotransmitter. Over he next few years, many investigators tested the functions of GABA and the neurons that GABA used” (126).
The recent discovery of neurotransmitters was abuzz in the biological world at about the same time as research on Huntington’s was beginning. GABA (gamma amino butyric acid, is a neurotransmitter that was thought to prohibit impulses from traveling from one neuron to the next. The idea proposed by Perry was that lower levels of GABA would allow more impulses to travel between nerve cells, thus contributing to the choreic movements seen by Huntington’s disease patients. This hypothesis, however, did not turn out to be correct. Research was limited due to the fact that researchers could only use brain tissue of a patient already deceased. Administering the GABA to the target site also turned out to be difficult due to a chemical reaction among the GABA enzyme. This example shows how a tentative explanation for a given phenomena can (and will) change when more information is known about the topic.
In addition to the depression effects Huntington’s disease can trigger, women with the disease can start to feel as though they are loosing their sense of femininity.
“Nancy and I spoke often on the phone, running up huge bills as we tried to sort out the symbolic meanings of this disease. For both of us, the diagnosis of HD struck at the heart of being a woman. In the sexual economy of our family, the fats of genetics were inescapably entangled with those of gender. Dad was strong, healthy, independent, while Mom was weak, dependent, and sick. When I decided not to have children of my own I felt much more masculine and barren and also damaged and less attractive as a woman” (72).
In an extremely difficult position, Wexler, like many other women with Huntington’s, was faced with the predicament of whether or not have children. Determining what to do in this situation was extremely difficult for Wexler. On one hand, she wanted the love and enjoy of having children, but did want them to go through the misery Huntington’s. Her decision to not have children has affected how she thinks of herself as a woman. She sought out therapy to determine what dreams of lesbianism meant, and struggled with her identity as a woman. She saw herself, being female, identifying with her mother as the one whose fate is sealed, while her father, the man, was free of any symptoms. This social dilemma, faced by all of the women diagnosed with the disease, is an important implication of Huntington’s disease that could very well be overlooked.
Symbiotic Planet: A New Look of Evolution by Lynn Margulis is a book for anyone who is interested in changing the way in which they view evolution on the minuscule and the grand scale of living on planet Earth. Whether you are a staunch believer, one who is a devout believer in their faith, or one who is caught in a sort of limbo, this book is an eye opener to say the least. Symbiosis and the implications that these intricate relationships have on the planet as a whole is not a new concept. However, as the book delves deeper into what symbiosis entails, new light bulbs start to go on.
After a brief introduction to her life as a student, wife (of Carl Sagan mind you) and mother, Margulis begins to lay out her ideas on symbiosis, symbiogenesis, and serial endosymbiosis theory (SET). She starts with a chapter on the development of the first prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells by means of symbiotic relationships of bacteria, one bacterium engulfs another to become a mitochondria or chloroplast, etc. This may be a familiar idea to some, and new to others, but the in depth investigations that Margulis has performed are astounding.
From here she goes into discussions on the all too famous “primordial ooze” and how that first spark may or may not have occurred. She also goes into the idea of the first sex between individuals exchanging genetic information being a symbiotic relationship. Creepy? Maybe, but it is and always has been about survival. Following is a discussion of using all previously mentioned ideas to work out an ever-changing taxonomic problem in which no one is quite sure where everything belongs.
The last chapter of the book involves the Gaia Theory. Gaia Theory is the idea that through the many, many symbiotic relationships of the living environment, the Earth itself is and always will be a sort of living organism. Margulis openly admits that “The Living Planet Earth” is a dangerous oversimplification of the many delicate and intricate relationships on our planet. But, is it possible that numerous interwoven symbiotic relationships built into, around and about each other lead to this wonderful blue gem we live on???
I would elaborate further, but I don’t want to ruin it for anyone who may read this in the future. As I said before, this book is for anyone who still has questions about how it is even possible that we arrived at this point in time. This book sheds light on what an enormous improbability it is that we have arrived to this point. Amazing and thought provoking to say the least.
Stiff: The Curious Life of Human Cadavers is the first book written by Mary Roach, columnist turned author, that began as an offshoot of one of her columns. The book is basically a compilation of her explorations into the bizarre “lives” of human cadavers. Her research takes her everywhere from plastic surgery practice, to crash dummy testing, head transplants, body-snatching, forensics research and crucifixion experiments. Although the book is often cringe-worthy, Roach uses witticism and humor to create an entertaining, respectful and informative book.
The chapters of the book that most related to the elements of the Nature of Science were those that dealt primarily with scientific research (rather than historical facts or practices). These include car crash testing, injury analysis, crucifixion experiments, and ballistics research. One in particular highlighted multiple NOS elements more than the others: injury analysis.
Roach devoted a chapter to an interview with Dennis Shanahan, an injury analyst who consults for car companies and large wreckages, such as airplane crashes. Shanahan walks Roach through his analysis of the TWA Flight 800 crash as he illustrates the evidence he used to develop his theory of how the plane went down. “In the case of TWA Flight 800, Shanahan was on the trail of a bomb. He was analyzing the victims’ injuries for evidence of an explosion in the cabin” (115). Shanahan used the injuries of the victims as his empirical evidence to justify his theories.
Initially, authorities had a theory that the plane went down from a missile blast. The NOS states that theories are often tentative, or subject to change. The following quote illustrates this tentative nature.
Shanahan turned next to the chemical burns found on some of the bodies. These burns had begun to fuel speculation that a missile had torn through the cabin. […] Had a missile blasted through the cabin, the fuel burns would have been on people’s fronts or sides, depending on where they had been seated, but not their backs, as the seatbacks would have protected them. No evidence of a missile (117).
Shanahan used his empirical evidence to rule out the original theory.
As his investigation went on, Shanahan illustrated the hierarchy of scientific knowledge, or the idea that scientific facts lead to patterns, which lead to theories. He used the evidence of “foreign bodies” to determine whether a bomb exploded on the plane.
Another way the dead can help determine whether a bomb went off is through the numbers and trajectories of the ‘foreign bodies’ embedded within them. These show up on X-rays, which are routinely taken as part of each crash autopsy. Bombs launch shards of themselves and of nearby objects into people seated close by; the patterns within each body and among the bodes overall can shed light on whether a bomb went off and where (117).
Shanahan used the facts (the foreign bodies found in each individual), to look for a pattern (whether the foreign bodies were found in the same location of the bodies), to finally determine a theory (whether, in fact, a bomb had exploded). Overall, the elements of the NOS were easily found throughout Roach’s explorations, however, they were more prevalent in the chapters that focused specifically on scientific research.
As the title of the book goes “The Selfish Gene” the author portrays the gene, which is the hereditary material influencing individual characteristics as a selfish entity. He kind of gives very confusing definition of the gene throughout the book. Dawkins says that “Let us try to teach generosity and altruism, because we are born Selfish. Let us understand what our selfish genes are up to, because we may then at least have the chance to upset their designs, something that no other species has ever aspired to.” Dawkins says that our body is simply the vehicle for the genes, which travels from generation to generation. He displays a very creative way of explaining the various scientific processes by giving metaphors. He possesses an artistic and creative way of writing. Though there are various critical reviews and arguments about Dawkins theories the book is really interesting and captures the reader’s imagination
Dawkins talks in details about natural selection and strongly asserts that the selfish gene is the reason of natural selection. He says, the selfish gene will always try to exhibit itself and will make all effort to remove its allele from the population. Then he moves on to say that it is due to this selfish gene that animal demonstrating certain behavioral patterns. For example, “women in the natural state become gradually less efficient in bringing up children, as they get older. Therefore the life expectancy of a child with older mother was less than that of a child of a young mother. This means that if a woman had a child and a grandchild born on the same day, the grandchild could expect to live longer than the child. When women reached the age where the average chance of each child reaching adulthood was just less than half the chance of each individual of the same age reaching adulthood, any gene for investing in grand children in preference to children would tend to prosper. A women cannot invest fully in her grand children if she went on having children of her own. Therefore genes for becoming reproductively infertile in middle age become more numerous, since they are carried in the bodies of grandchildren whose survival was assisted by grandmotherly altruism.” This sounds really funny. But Dawkins in this book portrays that genes rule over organism. The organism is a mere tool or robot. Then he talks in the preceding chapters about population explosion, contraception/family planning, courtship, fidelity, aggression, and social behavior. He explains all these behaviors in terms of the gene, which I find raises questions and a curiosity in looking for answers among readers. I find ethnology to be a very vast subject where research is still progressing. But this book definitely brings in innovation, creativity and knowledge in science.
In the last chapter, Dawkins takes about his theory of Memetics. According to this theory like genes, memes (imitators) are transmitted from generation to generations in humans for example altruistic behavior. He ends by citing that like “one unique feature of man which may or may not have evolve memically is his capacity of conscious foresight. Selfish genes have no foresight. They are unconscious blind replicators.” So as humans we are at an advantage to decide between right or wrong, just and unjust and act accordingly. This book really represents science for all. As a review say “This book should be read, can be read, by almost everyone. It describes with great skill a new face of the theory of evolution.” By W.D. Hamilton, Science
“The Secret Life of Lobsters” written by Trevor Corson is a magnificent book that describes the connections and importance in the lives of lobsters, the lobsterman, and the ecologists studying these intriguing species. Boston magazine stated it perfectly by reviewing the book as one that “braids scientific history with a fisherman’s view of a lobstering town, keeping one foot in the lab, one on the deck, and the other eight in the mysterious deep.” This book paints a perfect picture of the possibilities that can arise from the relationships formed between lobsterman and scientists that are working together for the future of lobsters, the future of a livelihood, and the future of understanding the question, why?
The struggles that lobsterman and ecologists face throughout the book include the battles of the lobster fishery together with the fight to determine how big the lobster population is, how long it could last, and measures to take in order to continue its success. The number of egg bearing females, where lobsters spawn, where lobsters reside, the prime water temperature, the direction of the ocean currents, lobster life cycles etc. must all be considered. New hypothesizes are always arising and answers are continually being chased down by the scientists. “If you searched with persistence and observed with a keen eye, Mother Nature would eventually reveal her secrets (pg 96).”
The history of the past plays a colossal role in how the success of the fishery will be viewed in the future. One needs to understand their past in order to get to their future and of all people lobsterman and scientists alike wholly understand this concept. Being a lobsterman is an ancestral livelihood that is carried in a family through generation after generation. Science, although it may not be ancestral, is continually developed with each generation of new scientists, new hypotheses, and new research. Just as the lobsterman and scientists look out for one another and prepare each future generation for the change they wish to see in the world and the responsibilities they possess, lobsters do so too. Each species, the lobsters, the lobstermen, or the lobster scientists come together to form an inseparable bond of friendship, experience, and wisdom for each generation to come.
“I do think it’s some sort of gathering of the flock, Jack told Bob Steneck. Those big females are the wise old ladies of the lobster population. They’re not coming inshore to shed their shells or lay their eggs, so maybe they’re coming in to lead the young ones out to the wintering grounds. You know, teaching them how to migrate (pg 218).”
Each of the elements of the nature of science can be found not only within the book but these elements explode within each chapter and part of the book. Empiricism and the demand for knowledge, the hierarchy of scientific knowledge, and tentativeness in explanations are persistent themes in relation to the quest lobstermen and ecologists are continually exploring in order to find the answers plaguing the lobster fishery. The social dimension of work and the subjectivity of perceptions can be described explicitly in the historical and generational continuum of scientists and lobsterman. Finally, creativity in looking for solutions is necessary for everyone and in everything. Critical thinking is mandatory and necessary to survive and reproduce. When looking at the book as a whole, some of the elements remain as ever running currents continually describing the progress the lobsterman and ecologists are making. Questions are continually being asked, research is continually being conducted, and answers are continually being found. But there are always more questions. These questions build, facts are found, patterns displayed, and theories suggested. At times, whether a lobsterman, ecologist, or lobster, you may be fighting against the wind, but your fight may only make you stronger and lead you in a direction you never expected taking, a direction with answers, or a direction on the way to a future destination.
“As Bruce and Barb sat on the couch in their cozy living room, their children off to college, it seemed the man on the screen might be right [“Boys, it doesn’t get any better than this.”]. Fishermen could do worse than protecting their young until it was time to release them into the currents. The rest was up to the sea (pg 272).”
I read The Omnivores Dilemma by Michael Pollan, one of my favorite authors. This book is a little long, but Pollan shares his personal adventures with such fluency and intelligence that you won't be able to put it down. I am super passionate about food so if you are too...you'll love this book!
In The Omnivores Dilemma, author Michael Pollan narrates the path taken by animal, plant, or fungus to becoming a meal on the dinner table, or for many Americans, in the car. Pollan actively investigates and eloquently reveals the growth, cultivation, slaughtering, processing, manufacturing, hunting, and gathering of food by traveling around the country to experience it all. Through his observations and research, Pollan generates the conviction that food is not created equally. However, humans, as omnivores, have the capacity to eat almost anything; therefore, the decision of what to eat and why it should be chosen over other foods is complex. The options are not limited for human omnivores and this variety of choice is reflected on the shelves of grocery stores. There must be a change in the way American’s think about food in order to promote a healthier nation. According to Pollan, if people take greater consideration for the journey food takes before it reaches the supermarket, the occurrence of obesity and eating disorders will lessen and the overall health of the country will change for the better. Throughout the text, Pollan cites scientific evidence, experts, and food connoisseurs to develop a proposition for Americans to be more aware of what they consume.
Pollan indentifies the creativity of scientists who attempt to study the diets of past civilizations in comparison with the diet of modern human beings. With no opportunity to observe past civilizations consuming food, scientists looked to alternate strategies and began investigating the remains of mummified humans. Pollan writes, “The same scientists who glean the composition of ancient diets from mummified human remains can do the same for you or me, using a snip of hair or fingernail” (p. 20). The ability for scientists to identify the diet of modern humans by assessing the mineral content in hair and nails is a creative advancement in modern science. Pollan incorporates this creative solution when discussing the prevalence of corn in the diet of humans in many civilizations throughout history. Scientists’ ability to determine the diet of humans by examining their remains, hair, or nails, provided Pollan with evidence to support his claim that corn has been a staple for humans and animals for centuries.
The tentative nature of science is also prevalent throughout this book. Pollan uses many examples of scientific facts being altered to prove the food we eat is not always healthy, even if there are claims stating otherwise. Pollan addresses the tentativeness of nutritional values in America as he writes “So every few decades some new scientific research comes along to challenge the prevailing nutritional orthodoxy; some nutrient that Americans have been happily chomping for decades is suddenly found to be lethal; another nutrient is elevated to the status of health food; the industry throws its weight behind it; and the American way of dietary life undergoes yet another revolution” (p. 300). Pollan acknowledges that scientific research can change the diet of a society if a type of food is identified as harmful or beneficial to our health.
Overall, this book was packed with examples for each NOS element. There are passages throughout the book that can be incorporated into classroom instruction as supplemental text.
Read it!
The Map That Changed the World by Simon Winchester
The book I read is about William Smith and the birth of modern geology. William Smith was an uneducated son of a blacksmith who developed the first geologic map. Mr. Smith was born in a time period where the church set the beliefs in science. What we know as fossils were believed to be shaped rocks placed in the rock formations by God and it was believed the Earth was created 4004 years older than the birth of Christ, just as the Bible stated.
William Smith was extremely observant and curious about his surroundings. He wondered about the pounding stones used on his uncle’s farm and the shapes that were on top of the rock. The rocks were actually coral fossils and the similarity to see organisms had been documented before William made his observations, but no one had an explanation for the presence of the fossils in higher elevations except for that God had put them there.
William’s big break occurred when he was working as a surveyor in the coalmines. He recognized the similarities between the strata in the coalmines and in the elevated hills of the English countryside. He made the connection that the strata were not always the same thickness but were always in the same order. While others had noted the strata the connection to age and the application to all areas had not been done together and published for all. “I observed a variation of the strata on the same line of level, and found that the Lias rock which about three miles back was a full 300 feet above this line was not 30 feet below it, and became the bed of a river and did not appear anymore at the surface.” (p.86-87) He was able to confirm his theory by managing the installation of channels to transport the coal from the mines. He was able to see fresh cuts into the ground and continually collect more data.
Mr. Smith endeavored on a personal journey mapping the strata of England, Wales and parts of Scotland. He unfortunately ended up the victim of plagiarism, serving time in debtors’ prison and basically homeless for ten years after prison. He didn’t receive praise for his work until years after he had completed his map. The book chronicles Mr. Smith’s struggles and triumphs through his life.
I really felt that NOS is seen throughout this book. It speaks of past observations and science that had been completed up to William Smith making his observations. The book also makes a point to describe the social climate during this time period, which led to some of the low points in his life. It really just describes the mindset and thought process of William Smith and the society that he was completing his work.
This book was a great read and I really enjoyed it. I really do not remember reading or learning about William Smith in college so it was interesting to me to read about his life and his place in history. His story definitely has some struggles, which humanized him a little. The book was an easy read for me and would definitely recommend it to other people.
Dr. Francis Collins, the head of the Human Genome Project, writes The Language of God from the perspective of a scientist who maintains a faith in God and scripture. According to Collins, people compartmentalize their life in terms of faith and science – the two may seem to be at odds with each other and generally one will dominate the other. Collins recognizes the distinct difference between science and spirituality, in that science is the study of the natural world, while faith attends to the supernatural realm. While others have argued that this difference puts the two in conflict with each other, Collins suggests that as the two address very different, yet related subjects, it is possible, even essential, that the two be brought into harmony with one another. This is not to say that one justifies the other, but rather, they can be combined to create a more thorough understanding of each other.
From a nature of science perspective, this introduction to his quest for truth illustrates a desire for further knowledge, and the recognition that he had formed an opinion without the research to either support or refute his position. In determining his stance on faith, Collins looks at multiple arguments laid out by theologians and scientists alike. The concept of Moral Law is tied in repeatedly, as are ‘science concepts’ such as the origins of the universe and evolution. In NOS, we talk about the subjectivity of perspectives, and it is clear that Collins is writing this from a very open bias, so we must take this into consideration when analyzing his ‘findings’. That said, it is interesting to see how his own explanations have evolved through his research and change in spiritual standings, exemplifying the tentativeness of explanations.
Due to the difference between spirituality and science, it may be a stretch to say that Collins’ quest for faith exemplifies NOS directly, but it definitely mirrors his experiences in science, and I think can be tied to demonstrate how the Nature of Science and inquiry can be brought into a more abstract subject. Throughout the book, there are a number of solid examples that directly correlate to the NOS categories (such as a clear breakdown of how science is ever changing and new ideas can be tested and developed into theory (pp 58) or the social aspect of collaboration in science, as demonstrated through the development of the Big Bang Theory (pp 63)). These, and others could be pulled out of the text to serve as self-standing explanations of NOS. Obviously, as Collins’ work is in the human genome, there are many references to biology, as well, namely an appendix dedicated specifically to “the Moral Practice of Science and Medicine: Bioethics” which addresses topics ranging from DNA testing (pp 241) to stem cell research (pp 245).
In schools today, there is separation of church and state, a fact, which may discourage teachers from bringing resources such as this into the classroom setting. At the very least, I would encourage teachers to explore the text for themselves, as there are specific NOS examples that do not have ‘spiritual content’ in the related passage. That said, Collins does propose the overarching question for the text: “In this modern era of cosmology, evolution, and the human genome, is there still the possibility of a richly satisfying harmony between the scientific and spiritual world views?” (pp 5), through which he encourages the reader to seek an answer for themselves rather than relying on an autopilot answer, as he had for many years, so ultimately it is up to you if you would like to bring the complete text as a resource for your classroom.
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